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<title>Computer science</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Computer science</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Computer_science_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Computer science (disambiguation)">Computer science (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Fundamental areas of computer science</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:163px;max-width:163px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:68px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Programming language theory</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:125px;max-width:125px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:68px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:133px;max-width:133px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:116px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:155px;max-width:155px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:116px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></div></div></div></div></div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Glossary</a></li>

<li>Category</li></ul>

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<p><b>Computer science</b> is the study of <a href="Computation" title="Computation">computation</a>, <a href="Information" title="Information">information</a>, and <a href="Automation" title="Automation">automation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-YorkDefinition_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YorkDefinition-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MITAutomated_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MITAutomated-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DenningAutomated_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DenningAutomated-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computer science spans <a href="Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical disciplines</a> (such as <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a>, <a href="Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">theory of computation</a>, and <a href="Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a>) to <a href="Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied disciplines</a> (including the design and implementation of <a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">hardware</a> and <a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Algorithms and <a href="Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structures</a> are central to computer science.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

The theory of computation concerns abstract <a href="Models_of_computation" class="mw-redirect" title="Models of computation">models of computation</a> and general classes of <a href="Computational_problem" title="Computational problem">problems</a> that can be solved using them. The fields of <a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a> and <a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">computer security</a> involve studying the means for secure communication and preventing <a href="Security_vulnerabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Security vulnerabilities">security vulnerabilities</a>. <a href="Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">Computer graphics</a> and <a href="Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">computational geometry</a> address the generation of images. <a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Programming language theory</a> considers different ways to describe computational processes, and <a href="Database" title="Database">database</a> theory concerns the management of repositories of data. <a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a> investigates the interfaces through which humans and computers interact, and software engineering focuses on the design and principles behind developing software. Areas such as <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">networks</a> and <a href="Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded systems</a> investigate the principles and design behind <a href="Complex_system" title="Complex system">complex systems</a>. Computer architecture describes the construction of computer components and computer-operated equipment. <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> and <a href="Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> aim to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, <a href="Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">planning</a> and learning found in humans and animals. Within artificial intelligence, <a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">computer vision</a> aims to understand and process image and video data, while <a href="Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> aims to understand and process textual and linguistic data.

</p><p>The fundamental concern of computer science is determining what can and cannot be automated.<sup id="cite_ref-MITAutomated_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MITAutomated-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DenningAutomated_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DenningAutomated-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Turing_Award" title="Turing Award">Turing Award</a> is generally recognized as the highest distinction in computer science.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">History of computer science</a></div>

<table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff"><a href="History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;">

<a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">Hardware 1960s to present</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;">

<a href="Software" title="Software">Software</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_software" title="History of software">Software</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_software_configuration_management" title="History of software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_free_and_open-source_software" title="History of free and open-source software">Free software and open-source software</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;">

</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_artificial_intelligence" title="History of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_compiler_construction" title="History of compiler construction">Compiler construction</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">Early computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_operating_systems" title="History of operating systems">Operating systems</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">Programming languages</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">Prominent pioneers</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_software_engineering" title="History of software engineering">Software engineering</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;">

Modern concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_general-purpose_CPUs" title="History of general-purpose CPUs">General-purpose CPUs</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_graphical_user_interface" title="History of the graphical user interface">Graphical user interface</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_laptops" title="History of laptops">Laptops</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">Personal computers</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">Video games</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_World_Wide_Web" title="History of the World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_cloud_computing" title="History of cloud computing">Cloud</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication" title="Timeline of quantum computing and communication">Quantum</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;">

By country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_computer_hardware_in_Bulgaria" title="History of computer hardware in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_computer_hardware_in_Eastern_Bloc_countries" title="History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries">Eastern Bloc</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_computing_in_Poland" title="History of computing in Poland">Poland</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_computing_in_Romania" title="History of computing in Romania">Romania</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_computing_in_South_America" title="History of computing in South America">South America</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_computing_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of computing in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_computer_hardware_in_Yugoslavia" title="History of computer hardware in Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;">

<a href="Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Timeline of computing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_computing_hardware_before_1950" title="Timeline of computing hardware before 1950">before 1950</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present" title="Timeline of computing 2020–present">2020–present</a></li>

<li><i>more timelines</i> ...</li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;">

<a href="Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Glossary of computer science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern <a href="Digital_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital computer">digital computer</a>. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the <a href="Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division. <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a> for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Wilhelm_Schickard" title="Wilhelm Schickard">Wilhelm Schickard</a> designed and constructed the first working <a href="Mechanical_calculator" title="Mechanical calculator">mechanical calculator</a> in 1623.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1673, <a href="Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the <a href="Stepped_Reckoner" class="mw-redirect" title="Stepped Reckoner">Stepped Reckoner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leibniz may be considered the first <a href="Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">computer scientist</a> and information theorist, because of various reasons, including the fact that he documented the binary number system. In 1820, <a href="Thomas_de_Colmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas de Colmar">Thomas de Colmar</a> launched the mechanical calculator industry<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when he invented his simplified <a href="Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">arithmometer</a>, the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. <a href="Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> started the design of the first <i>automatic mechanical calculator</i>, his <a href="Difference_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Difference Engine">Difference Engine</a>, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first <i>programmable mechanical calculator</i>, his <a href="Analytical_Engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytical Engine">Analytical Engine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He started developing this machine in 1834, and "in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/salient" class="extiw external" title="wikt:Special:Search/salient">salient</a> features of the modern computer".<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman1982_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman1982-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the <a href="Jacquard_loom" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacquard loom">Jacquard loom</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman1982_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman1982-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making it infinitely programmable.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1843, during the translation of a French article on the Analytical Engine, <a href="Ada_Lovelace" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a> wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the <a href="Bernoulli_number" title="Bernoulli number">Bernoulli numbers</a>, which is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 1885, <a href="Herman_Hollerith" title="Herman Hollerith">Herman Hollerith</a> invented the <a href="Tabulating_machine" title="Tabulating machine">tabulator</a>, which used <a href="Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a> to process statistical information; eventually his company became part of <a href="IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>. Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, <a href="Percy_Ludgate" title="Percy Ludgate">Percy Ludgate</a> in 1909 published<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. In 1914, the Spanish engineer <a href="Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">Leonardo Torres Quevedo</a> published his <i>Essays on Automatics</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-LTQ1914es_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LTQ1914es-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and designed, inspired by Babbage, a theoretical electromechanical calculating machine which was to be controlled by a read-only program. The paper also introduced the idea of <a href="Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating-point arithmetic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the arithmometer, Torres presented in Paris the <a href="Leonardo_Torres_y_Quevedo" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonardo Torres y Quevedo">Electromechanical Arithmometer</a>, a prototype that demonstrated the feasibility of an electromechanical analytical engine,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on which commands could be typed and the results printed automatically.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandell19826,_11–13_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandell19826,_11–13-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1937, one hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, <a href="Howard_Aiken" class="mw-redirect" title="Howard Aiken">Howard Aiken</a> convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to develop his giant programmable calculator, the <a href="Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">ASCC/Harvard Mark I</a>, based on Babbage's Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>

During the 1940s, with the development of new and more powerful <a href="Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> machines such as the <a href="Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_computer" title="Atanasoff–Berry computer">Atanasoff–Berry computer</a> and <a href="ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>, the term <i>computer</i> came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study <a href="Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> in general. In 1945, IBM founded the <a href="Watson_Scientific_Computing_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory">Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory</a> at <a href="Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> in <a href="New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, the close relationship between IBM and Columbia University was instrumental in the emergence of a new scientific discipline, with Columbia offering one of the first academic-credit courses in computer science in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Denning_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denning-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The world's first computer science degree program, the <a href="Cambridge_Diploma_in_Computer_Science" title="Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science">Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science</a>, began at the <a href="University_of_Cambridge_Computer_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory">University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory</a> in 1953. The first computer science department in the United States was formed at <a href="Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a> in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.</p><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a> and <a href="History_of_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="History of informatics">History of informatics</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_scope">Etymology and scope</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Informatics#Etymology" title="Informatics">Informatics § Etymology</a></div>

<p>Although first proposed in 1956,<sup id="cite_ref-Tedre2014_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tedre2014-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the term "computer science" appears in a 1959 article in <i><a href="Communications_of_the_ACM" title="Communications of the ACM">Communications of the ACM</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Fine_1959_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fine_1959-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

in which Louis Fein argues for the creation of a <i>Graduate School in Computer Sciences</i> analogous to the creation of <a href="Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a> in 1921.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Louis justifies the name by arguing that, like <a href="Management_science" title="Management science">management science</a>, the subject is applied and interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical of an academic discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-Fine_1959_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fine_1959-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effort, and those of others such as <a href="Numerical_analyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Numerical analyst">numerical analyst</a> <a href="George_Forsythe" title="George Forsythe">George Forsythe</a>, were successful, and universities went on to create such departments, starting with Purdue in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain departments of major universities prefer the term <i>computing science</i>, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist <a href="Peter_Naur" title="Peter Naur">Peter Naur</a> suggested the term <i>datalogy</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. An alternative term, also proposed by Naur, is <a href="Data_science" title="Data science">data science</a>; this is now used for a <a href="Multi-disciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-disciplinary">multi-disciplinary</a> field of data analysis, including statistics and databases.

</p><p>In the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested (albeit facetiously) in the <i>Communications of the ACM</i>—<i>turingineer</i>, <i>turologist</i>, <i>flow-charts-man</i>, <i>applied meta-mathematician</i>, and <i>applied <a href="Epistemologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemologist">epistemologist</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three months later in the same journal, <i>comptologist</i> was suggested, followed next year by <i>hypologist</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>computics</i> has also been suggested.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Europe, terms derived from contracted translations of the expression "automatic information" (e.g. "<span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">informazione automatica</i></span>" in Italian) or "information and mathematics" are often used, e.g. <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">informatique</i></span> (French), <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Informatik</i></span> (German), <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">informatica</i></span> (Italian, Dutch), <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">informática</i></span> (Spanish, Portuguese), <span title="Slavic languages collective text"><i lang="sla">informatika</i></span> (<a href="Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> and <a href="Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>) or <span title="Greek-language text"><i lang="el-Latn">pliroforiki</i></span> (<span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el" style="font-style: normal;">πληροφορική</span></span>, which means informatics) in <a href="Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. Similar words have also been adopted in the UK (as in the <a href="School_of_Informatics%2C_University_of_Edinburgh" title="School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh">School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "In the U.S., however, <a href="Informatics" title="Informatics">informatics</a> is linked with applied computing, or computing in the context of another domain."<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A folkloric quotation, often attributed to—but almost certainly not first formulated by—<a href="Edsger_Dijkstra" class="mw-redirect" title="Edsger Dijkstra">Edsger Dijkstra</a>, states that "computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of <a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>, while the study of commercial <a href="Computer_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer system">computer systems</a> and their deployment is often called information technology or <a href="Information_system" title="Information system">information systems</a>. However, there has been exchange of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as <a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, <a href="Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a>, <a href="Computational_statistics" title="Computational statistics">statistics</a>, <a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and <a href="Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>.

</p><p>Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science.<sup id="cite_ref-Denning_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denning-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as <a href="Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a>, <a href="Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>, <a href="John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>, <a href="R%C3%B3zsa_P%C3%A9ter" title="Rózsa Péter">Rózsa Péter</a> and <a href="Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a> and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as <a href="Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">mathematical logic</a>, <a href="Category_theory" title="Category theory">category theory</a>, <a href="Domain_theory" title="Domain theory">domain theory</a>, and <a href="Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tedre2014_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tedre2014-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by <a href="Software_engineering#Suitability" title="Software engineering">disputes</a> over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="David_Parnas" title="David Parnas">David Parnas</a>, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department is formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with <a href="Computational_science" title="Computational science">computational science</a>. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Philosophy of computer science</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology_of_computer_science">Epistemology of computer science</h3></div><p>

Despite the word <i>science</i> in its name, there is debate over whether or not computer science is a discipline of science,<sup id="cite_ref-Luk20_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luk20-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mathematics,<sup id="cite_ref-Knuth74_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knuth74-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-plato_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Allen_Newell" title="Allen Newell">Allen Newell</a> and <a href="Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a> argued in 1975, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">

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</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Computer science is an empirical discipline. We would have called it an experimental science, but like astronomy, economics, and geology, some of its unique forms of observation and experience do not fit a narrow stereotype of the experimental method. Nonetheless, they are experiments. Each new machine that is built is an experiment. Actually constructing the machine poses a question to nature; and we listen for the answer by observing the machine in operation and analyzing it by all analytical and measurement means available.<sup id="cite_ref-plato_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> It has since been argued that computer science can be classified as an empirical science since it makes use of empirical testing to evaluate the <a href="Correctness_(computer_science)" title="Correctness (computer science)">correctness of programs</a>, but a problem remains in defining the laws and theorems of computer science (if any exist) and defining the nature of experiments in computer science.<sup id="cite_ref-plato_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of classifying computer science as an engineering discipline argue that the reliability of computational systems is investigated in the same way as bridges in <a href="Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a> and airplanes in <a href="Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-plato_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also argue that while empirical sciences observe what presently exists, computer science observes what is possible to exist and while scientists discover laws from observation, no proper laws have been found in computer science and it is instead concerned with creating phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-plato_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Proponents of classifying computer science as a mathematical discipline argue that computer programs are physical realizations of mathematical entities and programs that can be <a href="Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductively reasoned</a> through mathematical <a href="Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">formal methods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-plato_54-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computer scientists <a href="Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a> and <a href="Tony_Hoare" title="Tony Hoare">Tony Hoare</a> regard instructions for computer programs as mathematical sentences and interpret formal semantics for programming languages as mathematical <a href="Axiomatic_system" title="Axiomatic system">axiomatic systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-plato_54-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plato-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paradigms_of_computer_science">Paradigms of computer science</h3></div>

<p>A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science. <a href="Peter_Wegner_(computer_scientist)" title="Peter Wegner (computer scientist)">Peter Wegner</a> argued that those paradigms are science, technology, and mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Peter_J._Denning" title="Peter J. Denning">Peter Denning</a>'s working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.<sup id="cite_ref-Denning_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denning-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amnon H. Eden described them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the "scientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of <a href="Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-denning07_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-denning07-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> identifiable in some branches of <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Computer science focuses on methods involved in design, specification, programming, verification, implementation and testing of human-made computing systems.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fields">Fields</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline of computer science</a></div>

<p>As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.<sup id="cite_ref-CSAB1997_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSAB1997-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

<a href="CSAB_(professional_organization)" title="CSAB (professional organization)">CSAB</a>, formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board—which is made up of representatives of the <a href="Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">Association for Computing Machinery</a> (ACM), and the <a href="IEEE_Computer_Society" title="IEEE Computer Society">IEEE Computer Society</a> (IEEE CS)<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: <i>theory of computation</i>, <i>algorithms and data structures</i>, <i>programming methodology and languages</i>, and <i>computer elements and architecture</i>. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human–computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and <a href="Symbolic_computation" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolic computation">symbolic computation</a> as being important areas of computer science.<sup id="cite_ref-CSAB1997_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSAB1997-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_computer_science">Theoretical computer science</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></div>

<p><i>Theoretical computer science</i> is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from practical and everyday computation. It aims to understand the nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more efficient methodologies.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theory_of_computation">Theory of computation</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></div>

<p>According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be automated?"<sup id="cite_ref-DenningAutomated_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DenningAutomated-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, <a href="Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">computability theory</a> examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical <a href="Models_of_computation" class="mw-redirect" title="Models of computation">models of computation</a>. The second question is addressed by <a href="Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">computational complexity theory</a>, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.

</p><p>The famous <a href="P_%3D_NP%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="P = NP?">P = NP?</a> problem, one of the <a href="Millennium_Prize_Problems" title="Millennium Prize Problems">Millennium Prize Problems</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an open problem in the theory of computation.

</p>

</td>

</td>

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M=\{X:X\not \in X\}}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./0ef529b2d16ced36cdbf1c5bfa9155f631edf305.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.583ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M=\{X:X\not \in X\}}" loading="lazy"></span>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal languages</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Models_of_computation" class="mw-redirect" title="Models of computation">Models of computation</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Quantum_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum computer">Quantum computing theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Circuit_(computer_science)" title="Circuit (computer science)">Logic circuit theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Cellular_automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular automata">Cellular automata</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Information_and_coding_theory">Information and coding theory</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a> and <a href="Coding_theory" title="Coding theory">Coding theory</a></div>

<p>Information theory, closely related to <a href="Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> and <a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by <a href="Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a> to find fundamental limits on <a href="Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a> operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Coding theory is the study of the properties of <a href="Code" title="Code">codes</a> (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for <a href="Data_compression" title="Data compression">data compression</a>, <a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a>, <a href="Error_detection_and_correction" title="Error detection and correction">error detection and correction</a>, and more recently also for <a href="Network_coding" class="mw-redirect" title="Network coding">network coding</a>. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable <a href="Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">data transmission</a> methods.

</p>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Coding_theory" title="Coding theory">Coding theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Channel_capacity" title="Channel capacity">Channel capacity</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Algorithmic_information_theory" title="Algorithmic information theory">Algorithmic information theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Signal_detection_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal detection theory">Signal detection theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Kolmogorov_complexity" title="Kolmogorov complexity">Kolmogorov complexity</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Data_structures_and_algorithms">Data structures and algorithms</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Data_structure" title="Data structure">Data structure</a> and <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithm</a></div><p>Data structures and algorithms are the studies of commonly used computational methods and their computational efficiency.

</p><table style="border:1px solid #ccc; text-align:center; margin:auto;" cellspacing="15">

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Algorithmics" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithmics">Algorithm design</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Data_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Data structures">Data structures</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Combinatorial_optimization" title="Combinatorial optimization">Combinatorial optimization</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Randomized_algorithms" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomized algorithms">Randomized algorithms</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Programming_language_theory_and_formal_methods">Programming language theory and formal methods</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Programming language theory</a> and <a href="Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></div>

<p>Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a> and their individual <a href="Programming_language#Elements" title="Programming language">features</a>. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering, and <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>. It is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.

</p><p>Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the <a href="Formal_specification" title="Formal specification">specification</a>, development and <a href="Formal_verification" title="Formal verification">verification</a> of software and <a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> systems.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity and <a href="Life-critical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Life-critical system">life-critical systems</a>, where safety or <a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">security</a> is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of <a href="Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a> fundamentals, in particular <a href="Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">logic</a> calculi, <a href="Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal languages</a>, <a href="Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">automata theory</a>, and <a href="Program_semantics" class="mw-redirect" title="Program semantics">program semantics</a>, but also <a href="Type_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Type systems">type systems</a> and <a href="Algebraic_data_types" class="mw-redirect" title="Algebraic data types">algebraic data types</a> to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.

</p>

</td>

</mrow>

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Gamma \vdash x:{\text{Int}}}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math></span><img src="./4c96ef28327313f53f6deb407cd795c885e4be57.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:10.467ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Gamma \vdash x:{\text{Int}}}" loading="lazy"></span>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Formal semantics</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Compiler_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler design">Compiler design</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming languages</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Formal_verification" title="Formal verification">Formal verification</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Automated_theorem_proving" title="Automated theorem proving">Automated theorem proving</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applied_computer_science">Applied computer science</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computer_graphics_and_visualization">Computer graphics and visualization</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">Computer graphics (computer science)</a></div>

<p>Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents and involves the synthesis and manipulation of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in computer science, including <a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">computer vision</a>, <a href="Image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Image processing">image processing</a>, and <a href="Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">computational geometry</a>, and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and <a href="Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a>.

</p>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="2D_computer_graphics" title="2D computer graphics">2D computer graphics</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Computer animation</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Mixed_reality" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed reality">Mixed reality</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Image_and_sound_processing">Image and sound processing</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Data_processing" title="Data processing">Data processing</a></div>

<p><a href="Information" title="Information">Information</a> can take the form of images, sound, video or other multimedia. <a href="Bit" title="Bit">Bits</a> of information can be streamed via <a href="Signal" title="Signal">signals</a>. Its <a href="Data_processing" title="Data processing">processing</a> is the central notion of informatics, the European view on computing, which studies information processing algorithms independently of the type of information carrier – whether it is electrical, mechanical or biological. This field plays important role in <a href="Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a>, <a href="Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, <a href="Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">information engineering</a> and has applications in <a href="Medical_image_computing" title="Medical image computing">medical image computing</a> and <a href="Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">speech synthesis</a>, among others. <i>What is the lower bound on the complexity of <a href="Fast_Fourier_transform" title="Fast Fourier transform">fast Fourier transform</a> algorithms?</i> is one of the <a href="List_of_unsolved_problems_in_computer_science" title="List of unsolved problems in computer science">unsolved problems in theoretical computer science</a>.

</p>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Fast_Fourier_transform" title="Fast Fourier transform">FFT algorithms</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Image processing">Image processing</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Medical_image_computing" title="Medical image computing">Medical image computing</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">Speech synthesis</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computational_science,_finance_and_engineering">Computational science, finance and engineering</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a>, <a href="Computational_finance" title="Computational finance">Computational finance</a>, <a href="Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a>, and <a href="Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_computer-aided_engineering_software" title="List of computer-aided engineering software">List of computer-aided engineering software</a></div>

<p><a href="Scientific_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific computing">Scientific computing</a> (or computational science) is the field of study concerned with constructing <a href="Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">mathematical models</a> and <a href="Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">quantitative analysis</a> techniques and using computers to analyze and solve <a href="Scientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific">scientific</a> problems. A major usage of scientific computing is <a href="Simulation" title="Simulation">simulation</a> of various processes, including computational <a href="Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a>, physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, and interactions among biological cells. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for <a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Psychoinformatics" title="Psychoinformatics">Psychoinformatics</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Medical_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical informatics">Medical informatics</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Computational_musicology" title="Computational musicology">Computational musicology</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human–computer_interaction">Human–computer interaction</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></div>

<p>Human–computer interaction (HCI) is the field of study and research concerned with the design and use of <a href="Computer" title="Computer">computer systems</a>, mainly based on the analysis of the interaction between <a href="Human" title="Human">humans</a> and <a href="Interface_(computing)" title="Interface (computing)">computer interfaces</a>. HCI has several <a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction#Current_research" title="Human–computer interaction">subfields</a> that focus on the relationship between <a href="Emotion" title="Emotion">emotions</a>, <a href="Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a> and <a href="Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">brain activity</a> with <a href="Computer" title="Computer">computers</a>.

</p>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Affective_computing" title="Affective computing">Affective computing</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Human-centered_design" title="Human-centered design">Human-centered design</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Physical_computing" title="Physical computing">Physical computing</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Software_engineering">Software engineering</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></div>

<p>Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying the software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing of software—it does not just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal arrangement and maintenance. For example <a href="Software_testing" title="Software testing">software testing</a>, <a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">systems engineering</a>, <a href="Technical_debt" title="Technical debt">technical debt</a> and <a href="Software_development_process" title="Software development process">software development processes</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Artificial_intelligence">Artificial intelligence</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> and <a href="Bio-inspired_computing" title="Bio-inspired computing">Bio-inspired computing</a></div>

<p>Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in <a href="Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a> and in the <a href="History_of_artificial_intelligence" title="History of artificial intelligence">Dartmouth Conference</a> (1956), artificial intelligence research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as <a href="Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>, symbolic logic, <a href="Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>, <a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>, <a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, <a href="Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">neurophysiology</a>, and <a href="Social_intelligence" title="Social intelligence">social intelligence</a>. AI is associated in the popular mind with <a href="Robotics" title="Robotics">robotic development</a>, but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of <a href="Software_development" title="Software development">software development</a>, which require computational understanding. The starting point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question "<a href="Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence" title="Computing Machinery and Intelligence">Can computers think?</a>", and the question remains effectively unanswered, although the <a href="Turing_test" title="Turing test">Turing test</a> is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.

</p>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Computational_learning_theory" title="Computational learning theory">Computational learning theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural networks</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Planning_and_scheduling" class="mw-redirect" title="Planning and scheduling">Planning and scheduling</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Algorithmic_game_theory" title="Algorithmic game theory">Computational game theory</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Autonomic_computing" title="Autonomic computing">Autonomic computing</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Representation and reasoning</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">Pattern recognition</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm intelligence</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_systems">Computer systems</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computer_architecture_and_microarchitecture">Computer architecture and microarchitecture</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a>, <a href="Microarchitecture" title="Microarchitecture">Microarchitecture</a>, and <a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></div>

<p>Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computer engineers study <a href="Computational_logic" title="Computational logic">computational logic</a> and design of computer hardware, from individual <a href="Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">processor</a> components, <a href="Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">microcontrollers</a>, <a href="Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a> to <a href="Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputers</a> and <a href="Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded systems</a>. The term "architecture" in computer literature can be traced to the work of Lyle R. Johnson and <a href="Frederick_P._Brooks_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick P. Brooks Jr.">Frederick P. Brooks Jr.</a>, members of the Machine Organization department in IBM's main research center in 1959.

</p>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Processing_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Processing unit">Processing unit</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Microarchitecture" title="Microarchitecture">Microarchitecture</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Processor_design" title="Processor design">Processor design</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Systems_architecture" title="Systems architecture">Systems architecture</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating systems</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Input/output" title="Input/output">Input/output</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><a href="Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concurrent,_parallel_and_distributed_computing">Concurrent, parallel and distributed computing</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency (computer science)</a> and <a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></div>

<p>Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including <a href="Petri_net" title="Petri net">Petri nets</a>, <a href="Process_calculi" class="mw-redirect" title="Process calculi">process calculi</a> and the <a href="Parallel_random_access_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel random access machine">parallel random access machine</a> model.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When multiple computers are connected in a network while using concurrency, this is known as a distributed system. Computers within that distributed system have their own private memory, and information can be exchanged to achieve common goals.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computer_networks">Computer networks</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></div>

<p>This branch of computer science aims studies the construction and behavior of computer networks. It addresses their performance, resilience, security, scalability, and cost-effectiveness, along with the variety of services they can provide.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computer_security_and_cryptography">Computer security and cryptography</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a> and <a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></div>

<p>Computer security is a branch of computer technology with the objective of protecting information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users.

</p><p>Historical <a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a> is the art of writing and deciphering secret messages. Modern cryptography is the scientific study of problems relating to distributed computations that can be attacked.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Technologies studied in modern cryptography include symmetric and asymmetric <a href="Encryption" title="Encryption">encryption</a>, <a href="Digital_signature" title="Digital signature">digital signatures</a>, <a href="Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">cryptographic hash functions</a>, <a href="Key-agreement_protocol" title="Key-agreement protocol">key-agreement protocols</a>, <a href="Blockchain" title="Blockchain">blockchain</a>, <a href="Zero-knowledge_proof" title="Zero-knowledge proof">zero-knowledge proofs</a>, and <a href="Garbled_circuit" title="Garbled circuit">garbled circuits</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Databases_and_data_mining">Databases and data mining</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Database" title="Database">Database</a> and <a href="Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></div>

<p>A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through <a href="Database_model" title="Database model">database models</a> and <a href="Query_language" title="Query language">query languages</a>. Data mining is a process of discovering patterns in large data sets.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discoveries">Discoveries</h2></div>

<p>The philosopher of computing <a href="William_J._Rapaport" title="William J. Rapaport">Bill Rapaport</a> noted three <i>Great Insights of Computer Science</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>'s, <a href="George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a>'s, <a href="Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>'s, <a href="Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a>'s, and <a href="Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a>'s insight: there are only <i>two objects</i> that a computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything".<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd>All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop between two easily distinguishable states, such as "on/off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/low-voltage", etc.).</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Digital_physics" title="Digital physics">Digital physics</a></div>

<ul><li><a href="Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>'s insight: there are only <i>five actions</i> that a computer has to perform in order to do "anything".</li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd>Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only five basic instructions:<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

<ul><li>move left one location;</li>

<li>move right one location;</li>

<li>read symbol at current location;</li>

<li>print 0 at current location;</li>

<li>print 1 at current location.</li></ul></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machine</a></div>

<ul><li><a href="Corrado_B%C3%B6hm" title="Corrado Böhm">Corrado Böhm</a> and Giuseppe Jacopini's insight: there are only <i>three ways of combining</i> these actions (into more complex ones) that are needed in order for a computer to do "anything".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd>Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more complex ones:

<ul><li><i>sequence</i>: first do this, then do that;</li>

<li><i> selection</i>: IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;</li>

<li><i>repetition</i>: WHILE such-and-such is the case, DO this.</li></ul></dd>

<dd>The three rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified with the use of <a href="Goto" title="Goto">goto</a> (which means it is more elementary than <a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">structured programming</a>).</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Structured_program_theorem" title="Structured program theorem">Structured program theorem</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Programming_paradigms">Programming paradigms</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></div>

<p>Programming languages can be used to accomplish different tasks in different ways. Common programming paradigms include:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional programming</a>, a style of building the structure and elements of computer programs that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm, which means programming is done with expressions or declarations instead of statements.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative programming</a>, a programming paradigm that uses statements that change a program's state.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In much the same way that the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for the computer to perform. Imperative programming focuses on describing how a program operates.</li>

<li><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented programming</a>, a programming paradigm based on the concept of "objects", which may contain data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects is that an object's procedures can access and often modify the data fields of the object with which they are associated. Thus object-oriented computer programs are made out of objects that interact with one another.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">Service-oriented programming</a>, a programming paradigm that uses "services" as the unit of computer work, to design and implement integrated business applications and <a href="Mission_critical" title="Mission critical">mission critical</a> software programs.</li></ul>

<p>Many languages offer support for multiple <a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">paradigms</a>, making the distinction more a matter of style than of technical capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="List_of_computer_science_conferences" title="List of computer science conferences">List of computer science conferences</a> and Category:Computer science journals</div>

<p>Conferences are important events for computer science research. During these conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent work and meet. Unlike in most other academic fields, in computer science, the prestige of <a href="Conference_papers" class="mw-redirect" title="Conference papers">conference papers</a> is greater than that of journal publications.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One proposed explanation for this is the quick development of this relatively new field requires rapid review and distribution of results, a task better handled by conferences than by journals.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Computer_science_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer science education">Computer science education</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Glossary of computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_computer_scientists" title="List of computer scientists">List of computer scientists</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_computer_science_awards" title="List of computer science awards">List of computer science awards</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronics_and_Computer_Engineering" title="Electronics and Computer Engineering">Electronics and Computer Engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline of computer science</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could now be of unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the machine by hand; it was important also because it served to crystallize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really new, something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine." <a href="#COLLIER">Bruce Collier</a>, 1970</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the entry

"<a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Computer_science" class="extiw external" title="q:Computer science">Computer science</a>" on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The word "anything" is written in quotation marks because there are things that computers cannot do. One example is: to answer the question if an arbitrary given computer program will eventually finish or run forever (the <a href="Halting_problem" title="Halting problem">Halting problem</a>).</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.york.ac.uk/undergraduate/what-is-cs/">"What is Computer Science?"</a>. <i>Department of Computer Science, University of York</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200611230638/https://www.cs.york.ac.uk/undergraduate/what-is-cs/">Archived</a> from the original on June 11, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-MITAutomated-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MITAutomated_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MITAutomated_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/what-can-be-automated"><i>What Can Be Automated? Computer Science and Engineering Research Study</i></a>. Computer Science Series. MIT Press. 1980. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0262010603</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210109021022/https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/what-can-be-automated">Archived</a> from the original on January 9, 2021.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-DenningAutomated-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DenningAutomated_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DenningAutomated_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DenningAutomated_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDenningComerGriesMulder1989" class="citation journal cs1">Denning, P.J.; Comer, D.E.; Gries, D.; Mulder, M.C.; Tucker, A.; Turner, A.J.; Young, P.R. (February 1989). "Computing as a discipline". <i>Computer</i>. <b>22</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">63–</span>70. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F2.19833">10.1109/2.19833</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1558-0814">1558-0814</a>. <q>The discipline of computing is the systematic study of algorithmic processes that describe and transform information, their theory, analysis, design, efficiency, implementation, and application. The fundamental question underlying all of computing is, 'What can be (efficiently) automated?'</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientist">"WordNet Search—3.1"</a>. <i>WordNet Search</i>. Wordnetweb.princeton.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018181122/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientist">Archived</a> from the original on October 18, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 14,</span> 2012</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/computer-science">"Definition of computer science | Dictionary.com"</a>. <i>www.dictionary.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200611224238/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/computer-science">Archived</a> from the original on June 11, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undergrad.cs.umd.edu/what-computer-science">"What is Computer Science? | Undergraduate Computer Science at UMD"</a>. <i>undergrad.cs.umd.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201127013803/https://undergrad.cs.umd.edu/what-computer-science">Archived</a> from the original on November 27, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 15,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130821052407/https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/multiparadigmlanguage.html">"Multi-Paradigm Programming Language"</a>. <i>MDN Web Docs</i>. <a href="Mozilla_Foundation" title="Mozilla Foundation">Mozilla Foundation</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/multiparadigmlanguage.html">the original</a> on August 21, 2013.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2009" class="citation journal cs1">Meyer, Bertrand (April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pure.itu.dk/portal/da/publications/b474cea0-8288-11dd-b116-000ea68e967b">"Viewpoint: Research evaluation for computer science"</a>. <i>Communications of the ACM</i>. <b>25</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">31–</span>34. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1498765.1498780">10.1145/1498765.1498780</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8625066">8625066</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson1999" class="citation web cs1">Patterson, David (August 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cra.org/resources/bp-view/evaluating_computer_scientists_and_engineers_for_promotion_and_tenure/">"Evaluating Computer Scientists and Engineers For Promotion and Tenure"</a>. Computing Research Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150722020941/http://cra.org/resources/bp-view/evaluating_computer_scientists_and_engineers_for_promotion_and_tenure/">Archived</a> from the original on July 22, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2015</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFortnow2009" class="citation journal cs1">Fortnow, Lance (August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1536616.1536631">"Viewpoint: Time for Computer Science to Grow Up"</a>. <i>Communications of the ACM</i>. <b>52</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">33–</span>35. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1536616.1536631">10.1145/1536616.1536631</a></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFTucker2004" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Allen B. (2004). <i>Computer Science Handbook</i> (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58488-360-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRalstonReillyHemmendinger2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Anthony_Ralston" title="Anthony Ralston">Ralston, Anthony</a>; Reilly, Edwin D.; Hemmendinger, David (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/ralston.cfm"><i>Encyclopedia of Computer Science</i></a> (4th ed.). Grove's Dictionaries. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-56159-248-7</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200608005417/https://dl.acm.org/doi/book/10.5555/1074100">Archived</a> from the original on June 8, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 6,</span> 2011</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEdwin_D._Reilly2003" class="citation book cs1">Edwin D. Reilly (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/milestonesincomp0000reil"><i>Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology</i></a></span>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-57356-521-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKnuth1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Donald_Knuth" title="Donald Knuth">Knuth, Donald E.</a> (1996). <i>Selected Papers on Computer Science</i>. CSLI Publications, <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="COLLIER" class="citation book cs1">Collier, Bruce (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.html"><i>The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage</i></a>. Garland Publishing Inc. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8240-0043-1</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070120190231/http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 4,</span> 2013</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="Haiken" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Bernard (2000). <i>Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer</i>. The MIT press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-53179-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTedre2014" class="citation book cs1">Tedre, Matti (2014). <i>The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline</i>. CRC Press, <a href="Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRandell1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Brian_Randell" title="Brian Randell">Randell, Brian</a> (1973). <i>The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers</i>. Springer-Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-540-06169-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRandell1982" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Brian_Randell" title="Brian Randell">Randell, Brian</a> (October–December 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055055/http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/publications/articles/papers/398.pdf">"From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IEEE Annals of the History of Computing</i>. <b>4</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">327–</span>341. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fmahc.1982.10042">10.1109/mahc.1982.10042</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1737953">1737953</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/articles/papers/398.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on September 21, 2013.</cite></li>

<li>Peter J. Denning. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618">Is computer science science?</a></i>, Communications of the ACM, April 2005.</li>

<li>Peter J. Denning, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618">Great principles in computing curricula</a></i>, Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.</li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Informatics_Practices_for_Class_XI_(CBSE)" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Informatics Practices for Class XI (CBSE)">Informatics Practices for Class XI (CBSE)</a></b></i></div></div>

</div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dblp.uni-trier.de/">DBLP Computer Science Bibliography</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acm.org/">Association for Computing Machinery</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ieee.org/">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Computer_science1050" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Computer_science1050" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 <a href="ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing Classification System</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Very-large-scale_integration" title="Very-large-scale integration">Very-large-scale integration</a></li>

<li><a href="System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">System on a chip</a> (SoC)</li>

<li><a href="Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption</a> (green computing)</li>

<li><a href="Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li>

<li><a href="Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li>

<li><a href="Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li>

<li><a href="Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyber-physical_system" title="Cyber-physical system">Cyber-physical system</a></li>

<li><a href="Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_sensor_network" title="Wireless sensor network">Wireless sensor network</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Network protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li>

<li><a href="Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li>

<li><a href="Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Control_flow" title="Control flow">Control variable</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li>

<li><a href="Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li>

<li><a href="Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li>

<li><a href="Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li>

<li><a href="Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a href="Computing" title="Computing">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_process_control" title="Industrial process control">Process control system</a></li>

<li><a href="Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li>

<li><a href="Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li>

<li><a href="Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li>

<li><a href="Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-centered_computing">Human–centered computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li>

<li><a href="Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">Mobile computing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li>

<li><a href="Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li>

<li><a href="Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li>

<li><a href="E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li>

<li>Differentiable computing</li>

<li><a href="Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li>

<li><a href="Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> Glossaries</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering45" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering45" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Glossaries of <a href="Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_agriculture" title="Glossary of agriculture">Agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_architecture" title="Glossary of architecture">Architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Glossary of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botany</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_calculus" title="Glossary of calculus">Calculus</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_cell_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of cell biology">Cell biology</a></li>

<li>Cellular and molecular biology

<li><a href="Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_clinical_research" title="Glossary of clinical research">Clinical research</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_computer_hardware_terms" title="Glossary of computer hardware terms">Computer hardware</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_developmental_biology" title="Glossary of developmental biology">Developmental and reproductive biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li>

<li>Engineering

<li><a href="Glossary_of_entomology_terms" title="Glossary of entomology terms">Entomology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Environmental science</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_genetics_and_evolutionary_biology" title="Glossary of genetics and evolutionary biology">Genetics and evolutionary biology</a></li>

<li>Geography

<li><a href="Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms" title="Glossary of Arabic toponyms">Arabic toponyms</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms" title="Glossary of Hebrew toponyms">Hebrew toponyms</a></li>

<li><a href="Oikonyms_in_Western_and_South_Asia" title="Oikonyms in Western and South Asia">Western and South Asia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Geology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_ichthyology" title="Glossary of ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_machine_vision" title="Glossary of machine vision">Machine vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" title="Glossary of areas of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_mycology" title="Glossary of mycology">Mycology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_nanotechnology" title="Glossary of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_bird_terms" title="Glossary of bird terms">Ornithology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" title="Glossary of probability and statistics">Probability and statistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_psychiatry" title="Glossary of psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_quantum_computing" title="Glossary of quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_robotics" title="Glossary of robotics">Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_scientific_naming" title="Glossary of scientific naming">Scientific naming</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_virology" title="Glossary of virology">Virology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Software_engineering336" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Software_engineering336" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></li>

<li><a href="DevOps" title="DevOps">DevOps</a></li>

<li><a href="Empirical_software_engineering" title="Empirical software engineering">Empirical software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_software_engineering" title="Experimental software engineering">Experimental software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Requirements_engineering" title="Requirements engineering">Requirements engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Search-based_software_engineering" title="Search-based software engineering">Search-based software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Site_reliability_engineering" title="Site reliability engineering">Site reliability engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_software_engineering" title="Social software engineering">Social software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_testing" title="Software testing">Software testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">Abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_compatibility" title="Computer compatibility">Compatibility</a>

<ul><li><a href="Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">Backward compatibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Compatibility_layer" title="Compatibility layer">Compatibility layer</a></li>

<li><a href="Compatibility_mode" title="Compatibility mode">Compatibility mode</a></li>

<li><a href="Forward_compatibility" title="Forward compatibility">Forward compatibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_incompatibility" title="Software incompatibility">Software incompatibility</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Component-based software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">Data modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_architecture" title="Enterprise architecture">Enterprise architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_specification" title="Functional specification">Functional specification</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Software" title="Software">Software</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_archaeology" title="Software archaeology">Software archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_architecture" title="Software architecture">Software architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process/methodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality_assurance" title="Software quality assurance">Software quality assurance</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_system" title="Software system">Software system</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_verification_and_validation" title="Software verification and validation">Software verification and validation</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_analysis" title="Structured analysis">Structured analysis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Essential_systems_analysis" title="Essential systems analysis">Essential analysis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orientations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li>

<li><a href="Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspect-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_architecture" title="Service-oriented architecture">Service orientation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Developmental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agile_software_development" title="Agile software development">Agile</a></li>

<li><a href="Executable_UML" title="Executable UML">Executable UML</a></li>

<li><a href="Incremental_build_model" title="Incremental build model">Incremental model</a></li>

<li><a href="Iterative_and_incremental_development" title="Iterative and incremental development">Iterative model</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_prototyping" title="Software prototyping">Prototype model</a></li>

<li><a href="Scrum_(software_development)" title="Scrum (software development)">Scrum</a></li>

<li><a href="Spiral_model" title="Spiral model">Spiral model</a></li>

<li><a href="V-model_(software_development)" title="V-model (software development)">V-model</a></li>

<li><a href="Waterfall_model" title="Waterfall model">Waterfall model</a></li>

<li><a href="Model-driven_engineering" title="Model-driven engineering">Model-driven engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Round-trip_engineering" title="Round-trip engineering">Round-trip engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Data_model" title="Data model">Data model</a></li>

<li><a href="Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">ER model</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_model" title="Function model">Function model</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_model" title="Information model">Information model</a></li>

<li><a href="Metamodeling" title="Metamodeling">Metamodeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Object_model" title="Object model">Object model</a></li>

<li><a href="ISO/IEC_15504" title="ISO/IEC 15504">SPICE</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">Systems model</a></li>

<li><a href="View_model" title="View model">View model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Systems_modeling_language" title="Systems modeling language">SysML</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Systems_design" title="Systems design">Systems design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Software_requirements_specification" title="Software requirements specification"> Requirements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Functional_requirement" title="Functional requirement">Functional requirement</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-functional_requirement" title="Non-functional requirement">Non-functional requirement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Capacity_planning" title="Capacity planning"> Capacity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_users" title="Active users"> Users</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_processing_units" class="mw-redirect" title="Central processing units"> Compute</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_memory" title="Computer memory"> Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage"> Storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)"> Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_traffic" title="Web traffic">Web traffic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Interface_(computing)" title="Interface (computing)"> Interface</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="GraphQL" title="GraphQL">GraphQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Webhook" title="Webhook">Webhook</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="High-level_design" title="High-level design">High-level design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Client_(computing)" title="Client (computing)"> Client</a></li>

<li><a href="Load_balancing_(computing)" title="Load balancing (computing)"> Load balancing</a></li>

<li><a href="Application_server" title="Application server">Application server</a></li>

<li><a href="Message_queue" title="Message queue">Message queue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="System_Integration" class="mw-redirect" title="System Integration"> Integration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration"> Vertical</a></li>

<li><a href="API_management" title="API management"> API Gateway</a></li>

<li><a href="Event_store" title="Event store"> Event Source</a></li>

<li><a href="Batch_processing" title="Batch processing"> Batch</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Stream</a></li>

<li><a href="Orchestration_(computing)" title="Orchestration (computing)"> Orchestration</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Architectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Architectures">Architectures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Monolithic_application" title="Monolithic application"> Monolithic</a></li>

<li><a href="Microservices" title="Microservices">Microservices</a></li>

<li><a href="Event-driven_architecture" title="Event-driven architecture"> Event-Driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Client%E2%80%93server_model" title="Client–server model"> Client–server</a></li>

<li><a href="Serverless_computing" title="Serverless computing"> Serverless</a></li>

<li><a href="Circuit_breaker_design_pattern" title="Circuit breaker design pattern"> Circuit breaker</a></li>

<li><a href="Rate_limiting" title="Rate limiting">Rate limiting</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Database" title="Database">Database</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Relational_database" title="Relational database"> Relational</a></li>

<li><a href="NoSQL" title="NoSQL">NoSQL</a></li>

<li><a href="Graph_database" title="Graph database"> Graph</a></li>

<li><a href="Key%E2%80%93value_database" title="Key–value database"> Key–value</a></li>

<li><a href="Time_series_database" title="Time series database"> Time series</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_orientation" title="Data orientation"> Column Oriented</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Systems_design" title="Systems design"> Principles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consistency_(database_systems)" title="Consistency (database systems)">Consistency</a></li>

<li><a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability</a></li>

<li><a href="CAP_theorem" title="CAP theorem">CAP theorem</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance"> Maintainability</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_configuration" title="Computer configuration"> Configurability</a></li>

<li><a href="Modularity" title="Modularity">Modularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Durability_(database_systems)" title="Durability (database systems)"> Durability</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Scalability" title="Scalability">Scalability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Service_statelessness_principle" title="Service statelessness principle"> Stateless</a></li>

<li><a href="Asynchronous_I/O" title="Asynchronous I/O">Asynchronous I/O</a></li>

<li><a href="Loose_coupling" title="Loose coupling">Loose coupling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Availability" title="Availability">Availability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="Failover" title="Failover">Failover</a></li>

<li><a href="Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">Single point of failure</a></li>

<li><a href="Replication_(computing)" title="Replication (computing)"> Replication</a></li>

<li><a href="Consistent_hashing" title="Consistent hashing">Consistent hashing</a></li>

<li><a href="Circuit_breaker_design_pattern" title="Circuit breaker design pattern"> Circuit breaker</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Latency_(engineering)" title="Latency (engineering)">Latency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cache_(computing)" title="Cache (computing)"> Cache</a></li>

<li><a href="Shard_(database_architecture)" title="Shard (database architecture)"> Shard </a></li>

<li><a href="Database_index" title="Database index">Database index</a></li>

<li><a href="Cache_prefetching" title="Cache prefetching"> Pre-caching</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage"> Storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Object_storage" title="Object storage">Object storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Block-level_storage" title="Block-level storage"> Block storage</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Observability_(software)" title="Observability (software)"> Observability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Logging_(computing)" title="Logging (computing)"> Logging</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_metric" title="Software metric"> Metrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Tracing_(software)" title="Tracing (software)"> Tracing </a></li>

<li><a href="Failure_rate" title="Failure rate"> Error rate </a></li>

<li><a href="Queries_per_second" title="Queries per second">Queries per second </a></li>

<li><a href="Notification_system" title="Notification system">Notification system</a></li>

<li><a href="Anomaly_detection" title="Anomaly detection">Anomaly detection</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a></li>

<li><a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Software_engineering" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Software engineering">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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